Quick Key Facts

• The global population is growing by 1% every year, and is projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050. Vertical farming could provide a solution to cultivating enough food.
• Vertical farms can be built in many unconventional indoor spaces, including warehouses, skyscrapers, shipping containers, old industrial buildings and factories.
• Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) regulates temperature, humidity, lighting, water, nutrition and even carbon dioxide to create a perfect indoor microclimate for growing.
• Most vertical farms use hydroponic, aquaponic or aeroponic growing methods.
• Vertical farms use 95% less water and 99% less land than traditional farmland to create the same amount of food. 
• Without pests or weeds threatening the success of crops, vertical farms are often 100% organic, using no pesticides, herbicides or synthetic fertilizers. 
• High value, fast-growing crops like herbs, leafy greens, tomatoes and strawberries are among the most common crops grown on vertical farms.
• High energy usage, limited crop variety and the highly technical nature of vertical farming are some of the drawbacks of this method.

What Is Vertical Farming? 

What if you could walk into your grocery store in February to buy fresh tomatoes, strawberries, herbs, and leafy greens — all fresh and locally grown in the middle of winter? With vertical farming on the rise, that might just become a reality. 

Vertical farming is pretty much exactly what it sounds like: a horticultural method of farming on vertical surfaces rather than horizontal ones. Vertical farms can be built in many indoor spaces, including warehouses, skyscrapers, shipping containers, old industrial buildings and factories. This highly precise method of farming utilizes LED lighting and smart growing systems to control factors like temperature, light, humidity, water, etc. in an enclosed space. It often employs other methods of farming as well, like hydroponics or concepts from other large-scale controlled agriculture operations. 

History of Vertical Farming

Vertical farming as we know it is relatively new, but the concept itself is ancient. The Babylonian Hanging Gardens were built 2,500 years ago and remain one of the earliest examples of an advanced agricultural system that maximized space by growing upwards. The gardens were erected on vaulted terraces and likely were irrigated by a system of buckets and pullets that delivered water from the Euphrates River to a pool at the top. The Aztecs also used vertical farming practices with chinampas: an agricultural system of growing plants on floating, marshy rafts suspended in lakes and rivers. The ground was too swampy for growing crops, so they covered these rafts with soil, and let the roots of the plants grow through the bottom of the rafts into the water. In the 1600s, French and Dutch farms grew fruits against cold stone walls. Even though the Northern European climate was too cold to grow most fruits, the stone captured the day’s heat and released it during the night. 

Flash forward to 1999. In a class led by Dr. Dickson Despommier at Columbia University, the modern vertical farm was conceptualized when the class sought solutions to feeding New York City using rooftop farming. In 2009, the first vertical farm was built in Singapore — Sky Greens farm had 100 towers to grow produce, each at 9 meters tall.

^{The Sky Greens Vertical Farming System in Singapore. Sky Greens}

How Does Vertical Farming Work? 

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA)

Vertical farms differ from conventional agriculture mainly in that crops are grown in highly regulated environments: a concept called Controlled Environmental Agriculture. This type of agriculture is defined by its controlled approach to growing plants by manipulating the indoor environment to provide optimal growing conditions for specific plants. Temperature, humidity, lighting, water, nutrition and even carbon dioxide are customized and monitored. CEA essentially creates a perfect microclimate for growing — similar to a greenhouse environment, but much more exact. This method of farming has a lot of benefits — without the threat of flood, drought or other adverse and unpredictable environmental conditions, it allows for faster harvest cycles and predictable yields. It can also provide plants with the exact levels of nutrition, water and sunlight they need, wasting no resources in the process. 

System Structures of Vertical Farming

In these controlled environments, advanced farming technologies also used outside of vertical farms are employed to cultivate plants. Hydroponic, aquaponic and aeroponic systems are the most commonly used system structures on vertical farms. 

In hydroponic farming, plants are grown in a nutrient-rich aqueous solution. It’s the most popular method of vertical farming for its efficiency and versatility, and the initial technology costs are lower than most other systems. This method isolates the nutrients and minerals in soil that are beneficial to plants and adds them directly to the water, eliminating the need for soil entirely. Hydroponics usually employs a soilless growing media to support a plant’s roots while it grows — usually something like coconut coir, vermiculite, perlite, peat moss or rockwool.

Aquaponic farming is similar to hydroponic, but uses water from fish tanks to support plant life. Water from the tanks contains nutrient-rich fish waste, which is then filtered and supplemented before being used by the plants. The water is oxygenated through this process and then sent back into the fish tank. Basically, there is a co-cultivation of both fish and produce by this method, each system benefiting the other. 

In aeroponic farming, plants are provided with a nutrient-rich mist rather than water or soil. The plants grow on foam (which holds the plant in place), and the roots extend into a chamber filled with the mist. AeroFarms is one of the largest companies using this method, and successfully grows 550 kinds of  vegetables. 

Why Is Vertical Farming Beneficial?

There are notable environmental, economic and social benefits of vertical farming, all of which have contributed to its growth as a method of farming in recent years. 

Requires Less Space and Land 

You need a lot less space to create a vertical farm than a traditional farm, which requires huge swaths of fertile farmland to grow crops. In the last 40 years, we have lost more than 30% of arable land — that is, land that can be used for growing crops — to erosion and pollution, and are running out of land to meet the caloric needs of our growing population. Because of this massive need for space, farming is also the largest human cause of deforestation. Globally, 38% of land surface is used for agriculture. Razing ecosystems for farmland impacts biodiversity and the species that thrive there — rainforests especially are being cut down and replaced with monocultures, and more than half have already been destroyed. Vertical farming could present a solution to this crisis of space. By some estimates, 700 acres of farmland can be condensed into a supermarket-sized building with vertical farming.

Soil Health 

In intensive, large-scale farming operations — particularly monocultures — soil is depleted of nutrients, and its microbiological diversity is damaged by synthetic fertilizers. Between one and six billion hectares of land are now considered to be depleted. Vertical farming sidesteps soil depletion completely, as most operations use no soil at all. In hydroponic vertical farming — which often uses a soilless growing medium — no wait period is needed before growing again like most soil needs, allowing the farm to produce constantly without worrying about soil depletion.  

Lower Water Consumption

We are in the middle of a water crisis, driven by climate change and our massive use of water for agriculture. Globally, 70% of water usage is attributed to agriculture. The megadrought in the western United States is in its 23rd year — but vertical farming has been identified as a way to relieve the intense pressure the drought places on farmers. Vertical farms use about 95% less water than traditional farms. Because they operate as a closed system, water can be recycled through the farm and reused. None is lost to evaporation, and water can be targeted directly at the roots so none is wasted. Crops grown on vertical farms also don’t need as much washing before they are consumed, since they’re grown in clean conditions. 

Limited Chemicals

Soil on farms needs to be reinforced by organic and inorganic fertilizers over time as its nutrient stores are depleted. When fertilizers are applied to traditional farmland, they often run off into nearby waterways, and the excess nitrogen and phosphorus can create “dead zones” in bodies of water. Vertical farming doesn’t require these fertilizers, so there is no runoff into nearby communities. 

Vertical farms also have little or no need for pesticides, since the controlled environment keeps pests from entering the space. One billion pounds of pesticides are used every year in the U.S, and have documented adverse effects on both ecosystems and human health — 10,000 to 20,000 farmworkers in the United States suffer from pesticide poisoning every year. Without soil, there’s also no need for herbicides on vertical farms to target weeds. Thus, many vertical farms are inherently 100% organic.

Higher and More Reliable Yields 

In all, vertical farms have much higher yields — as much as 10-20x per acre. Looking to the future, the effects of climate change will certainly impact the ability of farms to produce food, whether it be droughts, floods, higher temperatures or more frequent natural disasters. Because vertical farms aren’t dependent on weather and seasons, they create perpetual harvests that are more dependable, so farmers don’t have to worry about unpredictable losses in quite the same way. Furthermore, since temperature and other conditions can be regulated, they can produce seasonal crops all year round. 

Food Access

Food access is a growing argument for the expansion of vertical farms — particularly by bringing fresh, locally grown food to urban areas and food deserts, regardless of their environment. 

With an estimated 80% of the world population living in cities by 2050, we will need to find a way to feed all of these people in areas where there is already very limited space for agriculture. The world population itself is projected to reach 9.8 billion by that year too, and food production will need to increase by 70% to feed a population of this size. In terms of acreage needed, this translates to an area roughly double the size of India. Given the small size of vertical farms, they can be built in existing spaces, including rooftops and other unconventional places available in cities. Growing fresh, healthy produce locally could make it more accessible and affordable to local people by eliminating the expensive shipping and storing processes of food that’s transported from far away. The food itself tastes better and is of higher quality, too — since it hasn’t been on the road or stored for weeks or months, the nutrients have had less time to deteriorate or for harmful bacteria like E coli to develop.. 

Reduced Emissions 

Along with these opportunities for crop cultivation in urban areas, vertical farms make it possible to grow crops in places inhospitable to farming, like the Mountain West and glaciated parts of the Midwest. Therefore, out-of-season crops typically grown in warmer climates and shipped over long distances can instead be grown locally. This cuts down on the food miles attributed to a produce. Food miles — the distance that food has to travel before reaching consumers — accounts for about 20% of food system emissions. The food itself is also fresher, which means less food waste, and less rotting food producing methane in landfills. 

Better Working Conditions for Farmers

Because there is less variability in vertical farming as opposed to outdoor agriculture, profits are more stable and therefore could mean better job security for workers. Workers aren’t using heavy, dangerous farming gear that can cause injury, and aren’t exposed to chemicals from pesticides and fertilizers, or diseases like malaria that are present on outdoor farms.

What Are the Potential Drawbacks of Vertical Farming?

While vertical farming presents exciting opportunities for the future, it also has its drawbacks — namely its high energy usage, limited crop variety and highly technical systems.

Energy Needs

The intense energy consumption of vertical farms is both an economic and environmental drawback. Given how dependent they are on electricity to function, indoor farms are highly vulnerable to fluctuating energy prices. They do, however, have control over when their “days” and “nights” fall, and can use electricity at times when it’s cheaper. Not all places have access to reliable electricity either, making vertical farming a risk endeavor. 

Although some vertical farms do utilize natural sunlight, most are highly dependent on LED lights to grow crops. There is some hope that electricity needs will fall in the future: according to Haitz’s law — which measures the progress of LED technology — every decade, the efficiency of LED lighting systems improves by a factor of 20, so energy usage might fall on vertical farms in time. Renewable energy resources can also be utilized to provide electricity, although most vertical farms are still powered by fossil fuels. There is also an argument that renewable energy sources like solar and wind require large amounts of land, which could counteract the land-saving benefits of indoor farming. 

Crop Variety 

Unfortunately, not all crops are successful in vertical facilities. Leafy greens, herbs and small vegetables and fruits like tomatoes and strawberries are the most common and successful. These high value, fast-growing crops allow the enterprise to be more profitable, given the faster turnover. Root vegetables, for example, take much longer to mature, and aren’t as profitable. Neither are cereal crops like wheat and corn that grow too tall to be stacked, so they cost much more than their conventionally grown alternatives. 

There is also the question of whether indoor orchards are a future possibility, perhaps using dwarf varieties of common fruit trees. Some trees take a very long time to mature, however, which leaves them susceptible to diseases and bacteria in indoor environments.

Highly Technical Systems 

Of course, given the highly technical nature of vertical farms, they are susceptible to technological issues. Power outages or other system malfunctions threaten the success of the farm — even a single issue with management of temperature, humidity, or lighting can hinder production. Farms must have highly trained people working on these specialized systems, and must be vigilant against water-borne pests or diseases, since they can spread quickly within the system once introduced. 

Lack of natural pollination is another drawback of growing crops indoors. Even if bees are introduced, it’s hard for them to navigate under the artificial lights. This is because many indoor farms use pink and purple lights — since plants are most successful when exposed to red and blue wavelength light — but bees see differently from us and become disoriented. Workers therefore need to pollinate plants manually that require pollination to grow fruit.

Takeaway

Vertical farming has the potential to grow more food for a growing population, and can do so without the same environmental impact as traditional farming. It’s not just a thing of the future, though — it’s estimated that roughly 2,000 vertical farms are already operating in the United States. Aerofarms is one of the biggest names in aeroponic farming, and Bowery Farming based out of New York City is considered to be the largest U.S.-based vertical farming operation, and uses an AI operating system. Crop One and Farm.One are other big names in Boston and New York, respectively. Even the International Space Station has soilless systems growing cabbage, lettuce and kale in the cosmos. In 2021, vertical farming created a revenue of $3.4 million, and the industry is only expected to grow. By the year 2030, vertical farming companies are expected to grow by more than 25%, according to a 2023 study. So, maybe farm-fresh strawberries and tomatoes in February aren’t too far off.

The post Vertical Farming 101: Everything You Need to Know appeared first on EcoWatch.

During the short, cold winter days, it’s even more important to care for your mind and body by getting outside. Hiking and camping are completely possible in the winter with the right preparation, but a short walk in a park to enjoy the winter scenery is just as beneficial. Here’s how to prepare — and enjoy! — an outdoor excursion on a cold winter day. 

Dress for the Weather 

The right gear can make or break a winter excursion, and dressing correctly for the cold weather is key. As a rule of thumb, cover any skin that’s exposed, or carry extra clothes to do so later on if necessary (a hat, gloves, neck gaiter or scarf, etc.). A pair of waterproof shoes is also essential for winter hiking, snowshoeing, or enjoying a local nature trail. 

In the winter, layering is crucial — you might feel really cold for the first half mile, but a hard hike could make you break a sweat halfway through. A three-layer system gives you the freedom to add and lose layers as needed: a base layer close to the skin that wicks away perspiration (like a long-sleeve shirt and leggings), an insulating mid layer (hiking pants and a fleece), and a waterproof shell layer to keep the moisture out (winter jacket and snowpants, if needed). Kids under five are usually best off with a full-body snowsuit in cold, snowy conditions. 

The fabric of your clothing matters too. When it gets wet from sweat or precipitation, cotton loses its ability to insulate, and also traps moisture against the skin, which can cool the body down and possibly lead to hypothermia (hence the hiking motto “cotton kills”). Choose items made from breathable fabric that wicks moisture away from the skin instead, like merino wool, polyester, and nylon. 

Get the Right Gear

Besides clothing, other winter accessories can make a day outdoors more enjoyable, especially in the ice and snow. When in doubt, bring more than you think you need. If you think there might be icy sections of the trail, toss a pair of microspikes or crampons in your bag. Even if you’re not in the habit of using them in warmer weather, trekking poles can be very helpful with slick, icy terrain. 

For overnight or highly specialized activities — like backpacking, climbing, or camping — there will be more winter-specific gear requirements for a safe trip. Consult REI’s winter camping and backpacking tips, and how to look for gear ratings when choosing winter-weather equipment. For example, a sleeping pad that works perfectly in the summer might not protect your body from the cold forest floor in the winter. 

All of this winter gear can be expensive, so check out secondhand outdoor retailers or borrow whatever materials you can. 

Take Advantage of Better Weather

When the conditions are right, take advantage! Sunny days with minimal wind make for a more mellow winter excursion — especially if you’re getting outdoors with kids, or don’t feel prepared for super cold weather. Look at the weather ahead of time, and plan a trip for a day with milder conditions.

Be (Extra) Prepared 

Besides grabbing all the right gear, make sure you’re prepared in other ways too. 

Consider your transportation method, and how you’ll access the trailhead or other outdoor location: will your vehicle be able to get you there safely? When going out with a group, coordinate transportation with the car best-suited for icy conditions or treacherous terrain.

If you’re heading to a nature preserve or state/national park, check their website beforehand, which will warn you of any seasonal closings, or if extreme weather has made a trail inaccessible or hazardous. Even when open and available to visitors, trail conditions might be adverse or ill-suited to the needs of your group. Consult apps like AllTrails, where users can leave reviews of trails, or even refer to photos on Instagram tagged at the location to see what the terrain looks like from people who have recently visited. It can often be harder to follow snow-covered trails in the winter, and it’s easy to get disoriented, so have maps downloaded and handy. If you’re accessing maps on your phone, be sure to bring a portable charger too. 

As always, have a first aid kit ready in case of emergency — especially in precarious winter terrain.

Try a New Activity

Yes, winter outdoor activities might feel unfamiliar at first, but colder weather brings a great opportunity to try something new! Snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, and winter hiking require minimal equipment that can often be rented at local outdoor stores or larger chains. Take some time to learn about a new activity beforehand: watch instructional videos, learn from friends, or take an online or in-person course before getting out there. If you feel uncomfortable on your own, research group outings with your school, local clubs, or larger organizations like REI, which lead frequent outdoor trips. 

Keep It Short and Sweet

Modify your expectations for outdoor activity in the winter — an eight-mile trek in snowshoes is very different from an eight-mile hike in the summer. But a long, remote hike isn’t required for spending some time outside — any amount of outdoor exposure during the winter months is beneficial. A 2019 study found that spending just two hours in nature every week has notable benefits for health and overall well-being, so even short walks around the neighborhood are beneficial. If you can’t access a trail or collect all of the necessary gear, walking through a local nature preserve or urban park to appreciate the sights and sounds can be just as valuable to the body and the mind. 

Stay Hydrated and Nourished 

In moderate temperatures, the average person needs half a liter of water per hour of activity. You might not expect to need as much water in the winter as you do in the summer, but your body is still working hard. An insulated thermos of tea or hot chocolate is always a good halfway-point pick-me-up too. 

The body uses a lot of energy when exercising in the cold, so be sure to bring snacks and have them easily accessible — you don’t want to be standing around in the cold digging them out of the bottom of your pack. 

Appreciate Winter Nature!

The leaves might have fallen from the trees, and the ground may be a little less green, but a winter landscape is still full of life. Take winter as an opportunity to learn how to track animals, identify birds, and appreciate winter landscapes. Plus, you’ll probably have fewer people to share the trail with, and you can enjoy the quietness and serenity of a winter day without the crowds.

The post How to Enjoy the Outdoors in Winter appeared first on EcoWatch.

The threat of extinction and endangerment of species is accelerated by human activity like deforestation, hunting and pollution, as well as climate change and its various impacts like extreme weather and warming temperatures. A species’ importance to an ecosystem often isn’t noticed until it’s gone. When humans encroach on wild territory, we often disrupt the delicate food chains that exist in wild ecosystems. Removing a source of vegetation or an apex species might have wide ripples, impacting countless other animal populations. Wildlife reintroduction is a process by which native species are reintroduced to areas from which their populations have dwindled or disappeared. Here are a few of the most successful reintroduction efforts throughout history. 

Bighorn Sheep, John Day Fossil Beds National Monument

An iconic sight in Eastern Oregon and the American West, bighorn sheep used to roam the steep hills, cliffs, and canyons of John Day Fossil Beds National Monument. After overhunting and diseases carried by domesticated sheep began decimating their numbers, the last wild bighorn died in the early 1900s. Their release marks the first time these sheep have populated the area in more than a century.

In 2010, the Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, and local ranchers and officials captured 29 sheep from the lower canyons of the John Day River — which runs nearly 300 miles in northeastern Oregon — and transported them over 100 miles before releasing them in the area. Now, visitors of the monument can once again look for their forms traversing the steep cliffs and canyons of the landscape. 

Giant Tortoise, Galápagos Islands 

Iniciativa Galápagos, led by the Galápagos Conservancy and the Galápagos National Park Directorate, seek to restore 11 species of giant tortoise in the Galápagos, even in areas where they had gone completely extinct. Invasive species and hunting decimated their numbers over time. Buccaneers and whalers used tortoises as a food source in the 18th and 19th centuries, and later, humans harvested them for oil. The introduction of non-native species also proved fatal, especially rats, pigs and dogs that preyed on their eggs and young, and grazing animals like cattle, donkeys and goats that destroyed parts of their habitat. 

Since 1965, captive rearing programs have raised tortoises until age 5 and then released them on the islands. Since then, more than 10,000 tortoises have been raised in captivity and then released, boosting the number of individuals to about 10% of their historical population. While a low percentage, it’s a great improvement over the near-extinction numbers of the past. Saving these tortoises is vital for the Galápagos ecosystem, as they graze on plant populations and disperse seeds, and are major drivers of tourism in the region. 

Black-Footed Ferrets, Badlands and Wind Cave National Parks

Once considered the rarest mammal in the world, the black-footed ferret is making a comeback. They’d been declared extinct in 1979, until, to a Wyoming rancher’s great surprise, his dog brought one of their bodies back in his jaws. They discovered a small population nearby whose numbers were dwindling due to disease — in 1987, only 18 individuals remained. 

The ferrets had been greatly impacted by the near-extermination of prairie dog populations in parts of the U.S., which make up 90% of their diet. Prairie dogs were seen as pests by farmers when American prairies were being rapidly converted into farmland. After capturing the ferrets and placing them in a captive breeding program, the NPS started reintroducing them to their original habitat; first 147 in Badlands National Park between 1996-1999, then 33 in Wind Cave National Park in 2007, after which they’ve been introduced to other places. Depending on the density of prairie dogs, Wind Cave National Park can support between 40 and 60 individuals, and about 120 are currently living in Badlands. 

Despite reintroduction efforts, the ferrets still remain critically endangered. Habitat fragmentation and outbreaks of plague common in prairie dog populations remain prominent threats to their populations. However, Badlands is now home to a self-sustaining population of black-footed ferrets, able to maintain their own population without the intervention of captive breeding programs. 

Gray Wolves, Yellowstone National Park 

Perhaps the most famous reintroduction in history, gray wolves were released back into their natural habitat in Yellowstone National Park in the late 20th century. As humans expanded westward in the 1800s, livestock came more frequently into contact with predators. Many of these predators were systematically killed by settlers, so wolves — apex predators at the top of the food chain — had less to feed on, and began eating domesticated animals instead. By the 1920s, they had been essentially eradicated from the park through hunting in an effort to protect livestock. 

After their elimination, the ecosystem changed rapidly. As apex species, wolves had been essential to the ecosystem. In their absence, elk and deer populations — previously a food source for wolves — exploded and proceeded to feed heavily on aspens and other trees that once held together stream banks and housed birds. Erosion ensued, and without their avian predators, insect populations grew. 

In 1974, wolves were listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service worked with the NPS to come up with a reintroduction strategy. In 1995, 14 Canadian wolves from Alberta were reintroduced to the park, first acclimated in pens for several weeks with plentiful elk carcasses to feast on and (literally) get a taste for their new home. The reintroduction has been seen as a huge historic success for the health of both wolf populations and the Yellowstone ecosystem at large. However, it wasn’t without controversy. Some critics argue that the elk population has fallen too low due to the wolves, but current data indicates that they will ultimately continue to lead to greater biodiversity in the area. In 2022, 10 packs of wolves and 108 individuals were reported in the park.

Bald Eagles, Channel Islands National Park

Bald eagles used to nest in five islands of Channel Islands National Park, but they had all but disappeared by the 1950s. Along with trapping and shooting in the area, DDT — a dangerous pesticide — is partially responsible for their decline. The pesticide was used heavily on farms at the time and then washed into waterways, poisoning the fish that birds fed on. This led to thinner, weaker eggshells, which cracked before the baby eagles could hatch. After DDT was banned in 1972, some bald eagle populations saw a resurgence, but many still struggled. 

The Montrose Settlements Restoration Program gave funding for their reintroduction in 2002, bringing eaglets from Alaska and other areas. They were reintroduced through a technique called “hacking,” wherein 8-week-old birds were kept in hack towers on Santa Cruz Island until they could fly. Between 2002 and 2006, 61 total eagles were released in the northern Channel Islands. As a keystone species, their reintroduction has been hugely impactful on the ecosystem, and has been crucial to the recovery of the endangered island fox. In 2006, the first successful bald eagle nest was found on the islands in over 50 years, and populations have been growing ever since.

The post 5 Successful Wildlife Restoration Efforts Throughout History appeared first on EcoWatch.

The weather is getting cooler, the air is feeling crisper, the leaves are turning yellow and red falling from their trees — and this year, leave those leaves be! 

It’s a common misconception that leaves always kill the grass they fall on. Aside from the fact that it’s time to ditch our lawns in the first place, fallen leaves are very beneficial to your soil, trees and plants, and the ecosystem of your backyard. By bagging them up and hauling them away, you are removing a valuable natural resource from your yard.  

If you have a yard or live in a neighborhood with other tree-filled properties, you’re likely familiar with the cycle of filling up large bags of leaves and putting them on the curb to be taken away. A lot of the time, unfortunately, these leaves aren’t being composted, but are taken straight to landfills. In 2018, 10.5 million tons of yard trimmings went to landfills, which was about 7.2% of all municipal solid waste landfilled. Yard debris as a whole account for 13%. When organic matter goes into a sealed landfill, there isn’t enough oxygen for it to properly decompose. As it breaks down, it produces methane: a harmful greenhouse gas even more potent than carbon dioxide. In all, solid-waste landfills are the third-largest source of human-made methane emissions in the U.S.

Here’s why you shouldn’t remove leaves from your yard and garden, and how to handle them instead. 

They Deliver Nutrients Back to the Soil 

Rather than buying fertilizer for the yard or garden, just leave the leaves be! They break down naturally over time, delivering nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium back to the soil as they do — and what gardener doesn’t want free fertilizer? This is, after all, the natural cycle that leaves take. In just one acre of temperate forest, two tons of leaves fall every autumn, which are hosts to beneficial microorganisms that break down these leaves, allowing the nutrients to be taken up by the trees again. These microbes also create a richer, healthier soil for growing your plants. By removing these leaves, we deprive trees and other growth of this important resource to sustain themselves. 

They Sustain Wildlife Populations 

To wildlife, fallen leaves also function as bedding and nesting material. Some animals like frogs, toads, and salamanders — depending on your region — hibernate under leaves in the winter. It also serves as a food source for insects like spiders and slugs, who are beneficial insects for your garden. Having insects means that other larger predators will come to your yard too. Caterpillars, for example, provide food for birds, thus promoting a more robust ecosystem right outside your window. Fostering a biodiverse yard will in turn help the biodiversity of your community, allowing native species to thrive and support one another in maintaining an active, healthy ecosystem: something that’s often lost when humans develop natural areas, displacing wildlife and removing their sources of food.

They Suppress Garden Weeds and Support Soil Structure 

Fallen leaves act like mulch, keeping down competing plants like weeds and shrubs. The leaves will also regulate the temperature of the soil and improve soil structure, making heavy soils more porous and sandier soils more able to retain and conserve moisture. If you experience a lot of compaction or erosion from rainfall in your garden, leaves will help alleviate both. Not to mention, traditional mulch can be quite expensive at garden centers. 

How to Leave Leaves 

Sure, you can just leave them be. But, if you want to make the most out of your leaves, here are a few ways to handle them. 

Mow Over Leaves 

It might seem counterintuitive to run over leaves with the mower, making an even bigger mess — but in many cases, it’s the best first step in letting leaves work their magic.  

If the layer of leaves on your lawn is relatively thin — about an inch or less — there’s no need to move it at all — just leave them on the lawn and mow them over to kickstart decomposition, allowing the nutrients to return to the soil more quickly.  Wait until they are mostly dry before going over them with the lawnmower, a mulching mower, or a mulching attachment on a traditional mower. An extremely thick pile of leaves will trap moisture and keep out sunlight, preventing the grass from photosynthesizing, in which case one of the following methods might be more appropriate. 

Layer the Garden

Using leaves to layer garden beds is a good option if you have an excess amount to deal with, or you prefer not to leave them in your yard. Rake the leaves onto garden and flower beds, or around the base of trees — they’ll suppress weeds and eventually decompose to support soil. If they’re large leaves, shred them in the mower before layering. Generally, between 2-4 inches is ideal (more for trees, less for perennial plants).

Reclaim Spent Soil 

Growing healthy, robust plants requires healthy, robust soil — and leaf mold might be just the soil amendment you need. Just let them decompose atop a section of the yard with poor soil. The lower part of the pile will decompose well, and the top layer can be turned under the soil in the spring.

Build a Wildlife Shelter

Create a brush shelter in the corner of your yard, if you have space. A simple pile of branches, leaves, sticks, and other yard waste that will be helpful for overwintering insects and nesting animals in the cold winter weather.

Other Ways to Handle Leaves 

It isn’t always possible to let leaves decompose on your property. Maybe you don’t have room for the piles, or don’t have a large enough yard to spread them out, or rent a place that requires you to remove leaves. It is true for city-dwellers that leaves left on yards can wash into streets and clog storm drains. In that case, composting can offer a great solution. 

Compost

If you maintain your own at-home compost bin, you know the importance of adding brown matter to the pile. Keep a pile (or box, or bag) of leaves next to the compost or in the garage, and add it slowly to your food scraps throughout the winter. They’ll decompose even better if you shred them with the mower beforehand. 

Compost Drop-Offs and Pick-Ups

Sometimes, leaf pick-up services do actually take the leaves to be composted. Look into your city or municipality’s processes for handling leaves, and confirm that they will indeed be recycled. Some cities will have programs that either compost the leaves or turn them into mulch, and then offer those products back to gardeners to use. Otherwise, companies will even come and collect all of the leaves for you to be composted.

The post Why You Shouldn’t Rake Your Leaves This Fall appeared first on EcoWatch.

Quick Key Facts

• Oil spills occur when crude oil is released into the surrounding environment — particularly oceans — and can threaten marine flora and fauna. 
• Spills are typically associated with offshore drilling operations, which drill below the surface of the ocean to access pockets of oil and gas. 
• Roughly 706 million gallons of oil enter the ocean every year.
• The Deepwater Horizon BP Oil Spill of 2010 remains the largest marine oil spill in U.S. history, releasing 210 million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. More than a decade after the disaster, many marine species in the area are still recovering. 
• Animals active near the ocean’s surface are most impacted by oil spills — like seabirds and otters — as well as seals, whales, sea turtles, and many species of fish.
• Along with their environmental impact, oil spills also affect human health and the economies of surrounding communities. 
• Booms, skimmers, dispersion, biological agents, and burning are among the more common methods of cleaning up an oil spill.

What Is Oil?

Crude oil or petroleum is a liquid fossil fuel. We use it to generate electricity, heat our homes, and fuel our cars. Petroleum products supply about 35% of energy in the U.S., with transportation accounting for the largest portion. Burning fossil fuels like oil releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere that drive climate change.

While oil is also found under land, much is stored under the ocean floor. This oil was formed from deposits of plankton that decayed over time, and under intense heat and pressure, turned into compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This raw material for oil travels upward over time to where there is less pressure, until it is stopped by impermeable rock and then settles in reservoirs under the sea bed. 

Oil is acquired by drilling into the ocean floor to extract it from the rock in which it’s stored. It’s pumped out, then transported by pipes, ships, trains, or trucks to refineries that process the oil so it can be used to create a variety of products like plastics, gasoline, and other fuels. In this whole process of drilling and transporting, oil can be spilled into the surrounding environment. An estimated 706 million gallons of oil enter the ocean every year, which has massive human and environmental impacts. 

Offshore Drilling: The Basics 

Oil spills are typically associated with offshore drilling operations, which access these underground pockets of oil and gas by drilling through the ocean floor. In 2021, 15% of crude oil was procured from offshore drilling operations, as was 2% of gas. 

Offshore drilling is anything but simple. It’s a lengthy process that takes years of construction and hundreds of million dollars to carry out. Because coastal waters are public land, fossil fuel companies must first lease parcels from the government in order to drill, which requires navigating the complicated regulation of these natural areas. The operator does an exploration of the area (often through seismic testing) to find oil and gas reserves, then builds mobile offshore drilling units — otherwise known as MODUs, oil rigs, or oil platforms — to dig a well. MODUs are some of the largest human-made structures on Earth and are also used to house workers and store equipment. Oil is pulled from the wells, stored, processed, and then transported to the coast via pipelines. In the U.S., offshore drilling happens mostly in Alaska, the Pacific Coast, and the Gulf of Mexico.

How Do Oil Spills Happen?

It’s not hard to imagine that in the midst of all of these complicated, massive drilling processes, oil can spill into the surrounding environment. These spills can happen anywhere where oil is being drilled, used, refined, or transported, whether it be in oceans, lakes, or rivers. Oil spills can happen naturally in what’s called a petroleum seep, during which hydrocarbons escape and reach the surface of the water due to activity deep inside the Earth (often the erosion of sedimentary rock). However, most large spills are from anthropogenic sources.

We all hear about the most disastrous oil spills in the news, but they actually happen pretty frequently: thousands each year, in fact. Many are small and can happen, for example, when a ship is being refueled. Drilling fluid is also used for lubrication in wells — also known as “mud” — and is supposed to be captured, but often leaks in the process. Large spills are much more disastrous, and come from different places within offshore drilling operations: transport containers, drilling platforms, and oil wells, primarily. They are caused by human error, breaking or malfunctioning equipment, natural disasters like hurricanes or high winds, or deliberate acts of terror or illegal action. A series of oil spills followed Hurricane Katrina in 2005, with 450 pipelines and 100 drilling platforms impacted by the disastrous weather. Oil can leak from a poorly maintained container, or a huge amount can be released when tanker ships rupture or a pipeline breaks, for example. 

Abandoned oil wells are another large source of oil spills. Oil wells are shut down by operators when they are no longer profitable, and while the companies are required to remove their equipment and restore the area they worked in, this often doesn’t happen. Wells therefore often remained uncapped and leak oil into the oceans and atmosphere. It’s estimated that 28,232 permanently abandoned wells currently exist in federal waters. 

After oil spills, it spreads across the surface of the water and forms what’s called an “oil slick,” the major source of concern in the aftermath of a spill. 

Historic Oil Spills 

Santa Barbara Oil Spill 

This 1969 spill near the city of Santa Barbara in Southern California was the worst oil spill in history at the time. A huge explosion occurred at the drilling site, which is largely attributed to inadequate safety precautions at the site and waivers given by the U.S. Geological Survey that allowed for weak protection of the drilling hole. About 4 million gallons of oil flowed into the Santa Barbara Channel, leaving an oil slick along 35 miles of California coast. The disaster spurred a huge amount of environmental action — the creation of Earth Day is attributed in part to the spill — and new federal policies arose regarding offshore drilling, including requirements for operators to pay for oil spill cleanups. 

Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill 

In 1978, a crude carrier owned by American petroleum company Amoco containing 69 million gallons of oil hit shallow rocks on the French coast near Brittany due to a mechanical failure of the steering system, coupled with stormy weather. Over the course of two weeks, all of the oil was released in the ocean and 200 miles of the coast was polluted. Millions of invertebrates and 20,000 birds died, and oyster beds in the area were contaminated. Weeks after the incident, millions of dead benthic species — including molluscs and sea urchins — washed ashore. 

Atlantic Empress Oil Spill 

To this day, the Atlantic Empress spill is considered the worst tanker oil spill (specifically from an oil tanker, as opposed to an oil rig or other source) in history, and fifth-largest spill overall. In 1979 off the coast of Trinidad and Tobago, the Greek oil tanker collided with another tanker due to heavy rain and foggy conditions. An estimated 287,000 tons of crude oil was spilled (there are about 305 gallons of oil in one metric ton), 27 people died, and the Empress was still burning a week after the collision. 

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

On March 24, 1989 in Alaska’s Prince William Sound, the Exxon Valdez set another record as the worst oil spill in history at that time. The tanker transporting crude oil ran aground at Bligh Reed and ruptured, spilling eight of its eleven cargo tanks into the ocean. Along the shoreline, 1,300 miles of pristine wilderness were contaminated by 11 million gallons of oil. The spill is remembered for its huge impacts on local wildlife: hundreds of thousands of seabirds, thousands of mammals, and hundreds of bald eagles were killed. Thirty years later, killer whales and some seabird populations still haven’t fully recovered. Various cleanup methods were employed after the spill, including burning the oil, mechanically removing it, and hot-water hosing the shore. However, some of these treatments (especially the hot water) were found to actually be harmful to the environment. After the cleanup effort, only 14% of oil had been removed and 13% had sunk into the ocean — the rest evaporated and degraded over time. To this day, pockets of oil are still present on the scene underground. 

Deepwater Horizon BP Oil Spill 

The largest marine oil spill in U.S. history, the Deepwater Horizon — often just called the “BP oil spill” — is widely remembered for its devastating impact. On April 20, 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, an explosion on a drilling platform killed 11 people and caused 210 million gallons of oil to spill into the ocean. Within five days the oil had covered 580 square miles, and within 10 days, 3850 square miles. The oil flowed for 87 days from the Macondo Prospect before it was capped. The spill occurred in one of the most biodiverse marine areas in the world and had a massive impact on the environment. While some species have rebounded, many are still struggling today, including deep-sea coral and spotted sea trout. Preliminary research shows that many dolphins in the area have remained sick, and have a much lower rate of successful pregnancies. Restoration — funded by a $8.8 billion settlement with BP — is still active today. 

Environmental Impact of Oil Spills

Oil clings to everything: rocks, sand, plants, and animals. When it eventually stops floating, it sinks below the surface of the ocean and continues to impact species underneath. The seriousness of a spill can be a function of location, habitat, and the concentration and type of chemicals in the oil. Because they aren’t able to disperse as much, spills that happen closest to shore are often the most dangerous — although those that occur far out at sea cover a huge range and thus impact a larger area. Wherever they occur, oil spills have a devastating impact on the natural world. 

Disruption to Ecosystems

Clearly, such a huge influx of oil destroys natural habitats in its wake. It coats plants, soaks into the soil and sand, and poisons or suffocates species. When oil floats on top of the water, light can’t penetrate and photosynthesis is prevented, meaning plants that provide food for many underwater species can’t grow. Oil also erodes shorelines and harms vulnerable ecosystems like wetlands. The Deepwater Horizon explosion especially impacted Louisiana’s Mississippi River Delta ecosystem, which provides vital ecosystem services like flood control, and important nesting areas for animals and host birds during migration seasons.

Harm to Animals

Oil floats, so animals close to the surface, like birds and otters, are often impacted. The Exxon Valdez spill, for example, resulted in the death of 250,000 seabirds, 3,000 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 eagles, and 22 killer whales. Similarly, the BP oil spill was fatal to 1 million seabirds, 5,000 marine mammals, and 1,000 sea turtles.

Ocean wildlife is primarily impacted by oiling (or “fouling”) on their external bodies. We’ve all seen an image of a duckling covered in oil, and it’s as deadly as it looks. When oil coats the wings of birds, they are unable to fly and become victim to predators, or can’t flee the scene of the spill. It also impacts the insulating properties of fur for sea otters and other mammals, who then can’t regulate their body temperature and become at risk for developing hypothermia. Other mammals are impacted, too, like whales, dolphins, and seals, whose blow holes get clogged by oil, leaving them unable to breathe.

Oil toxicity impacts the internal body of animals, too. The toxic compounds in oil are poisonous to animals. Many swallow or inhale the oil while cleaning themselves, or when they eat prey that have been coated in it. The oil can damage the immune system and the heart, impact the function of lungs and liver, blind animals, and cause reproductive changes. 

Oil spills can affect the population numbers and long-term survival of species as well — especially when, like the BP oil spill, they occur during mating and nesting season. Sea turtles, for example, spend most of their life at sea, but come to land to nest and breed. If damaged by oil, their eggs might not develop properly. Fish eggs and larvae are especially threatened by oil spills. Shrimp and oyster fisheries along the coast of Louisiana were seriously harmed during the BP oil spill, and it took nearly 30 years for fisheries impacted by the Exxon Valdez spill to recover. Even if a species itself isn’t directly impacted by the spill, these population declines impact food chains — if a species depends on prey that have been killed in a spill, they will suffer, too. 

Atmospheric Impacts 

While it might not be as immediately obvious, atmospheric pollution is another harmful impact of oil spills. During the cleanup efforts after the BP oil spill, for example, the oil was burned off the surface of the ocean, releasing 1 million pounds of black carbon into the atmosphere. Methane — a climate-warming greenhouse gas — is also released in oil spills It often forms alongside fossil fuels in underground reservoirs, so when oil is released, so is methane.

The Issue of Arctic Drilling 

Offshore drilling in the Arctic is of particular concern. The Arctic warms at twice the rate of the rest of the world and could be ice-free in the summer by the 2030s, opening the path for more oil and gas exploration. It is among the most remote areas on the planet and would be nearly impossible to clean up in the event of a major oil spill. Emergency responders are not nearly as widespread, environmental conditions make it difficult to transport major equipment out there, and because less than 1% of the U.S. Arctic has been surveyed with modern technology, we do not have very accurate navigational charts of the area. There have been arguments to ban the use and carriage of oil on ships in the Arctic, or to create safe shipping corridors that don’t go through vulnerable habitats. However, in March the Biden administration announced plans to block oil and gas drilling in swaths of the Arctic Ocean and Alaska, while simultaneously approving the highly controversial Willow oil project on the North Slope of Alaska, about 200 miles north of the Arctic Circle, drawing major criticism from environmental groups.

Social Impact of Oil Spills

Along with these serious environment impacts, oil spills also cause harm to humans — particularly those in communities surrounding the spills. 

Human Health 

Among other harmful substances, crude oil contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can impact both the respiratory system and the nervous system. Workers and volunteers cleaning up the spill have direct exposure to the oil, and community members can still inhale these chemicals as they are dispersed by the wind, or ingest contaminated seafood and water. The BP oil spill was one harrowing example of the impact that oil spills can have on human health. In the months after the disaster, many citizens — especially those that helped in the cleanup — reported symptoms. Research has linked exposure of those who helped with the cleanup in the aftermath of the BP oil spill with increased risk of cancer, long-term respiratory conditions, and heart disease, as well as blurred vision, headaches, and memory loss. Local residents have coined their chronic symptoms after the cleanup — which include diarrhea, rashes, and respiratory problems — “BP syndrome” or “Gulf Coast syndrome,” according to The Guardian. Besides these physical impacts, elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and PTSD have been documented in cleanup workers and volunteers. 

Loss of Revenue and Resources 

Commercial fishing and tourism — two industries that prop up many economies — can be devastated by oil spills. In the aftermath, beaches and parks along the shoreline close for lengthy periods — and in general, tourists are less likely to want to visit these places and may believe a wider area to be impacted than actually is. In areas that depend on tourism, this can be devastating to their economies. After the BP oil spill, the region’s commercial fishing industry reported $62 million in losses, and the tourism industry $1.5 billion. For tribes and First Nations that depend upon natural resources, an oil spill could be disastrous to the entire fabric of their community and survival. 

Oil Spill Cleanups

The response to oil spills is generally fourfold: 

1. Stopping the flow of oil and protecting areas that might be harmed by it.
2. Removing the oil from the environment.
3. Recovering and rehabilitating wildlife.
4. Restoring the impacted area.

Sensitive locations in particular, like wetlands, nesting areas, and beaches, need to be protected from oil slicks. Some sensitive habitats need very specific cleanup processes so they are not further damaged. It can be difficult to enact cleanups when the spill happens over a wide area, and when it impacts larger animals like whales, which are hard to recover and rehabilitate. 

Data collection is an important element of oil spill cleanups. NASA takes satellite and airborne data to locate oil and determine its trajectory. ERMA (Environmental Response Management Application) — which NOAA made available during the Deepwater Horizon spill — is an important mapping tool that uses Environmental Sensitivity Index maps, locations of ships, currents, weather, etc. to aid in cleanup efforts. The U.S. Coast Guard is primarily responsible for oil spill cleanups, as well as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 also established that the party responsible for an oil spill can be held responsible for costs incurred in cleaning up and restoring the area. 

Cleanup Methods 

Oil spills can take many years to completely clean up. Often, several methods of cleanup are employed at once. The type used depends on how much and what type of oil is spilled, where the oil has spilled and its distance from the shore, what species and habitats are being impacted, and whether people live in the area. The following are among the most common methods and technologies, although ultimately, none removes 100% of oil on its own. 

• Booms are floating barriers made of plastic or metal. These are strategically placed in the ocean to help contain the oil and slow its spread, especially to keep it away from certain sensitive areas. Booms can be placed around a leaking tanker, or along coastal areas as protection. 
• Skimmers are deployed by boats to “skim” the oil off the surface of the ocean, although their viability depends on the thickness of the oil slick. 
• Burning — or “situ burning” — is less common, and entails setting the oil slick ablaze.
• Dispersion uses chemical dispersants to break up the oil slick by dispersing it into the water column so that less remains on the surface of the ocean.
• Biological agents like microbes or fertilizers are used to break down oil.

Cleanup efforts are made on the shorelines surrounding a spill as well, using biodegradation agents, burning, and manual and mechanical removal, as well as other methods. Vacuum trucks suck up the oil-polluted water, sorbents absorb the oil like a sponge, and water hoses rinse the oil into the water where it can be collected more easily. 

Restoration 

Restoration is another important part of oil spill responses. These projects are different from the cleanup itself — beyond merely removing the oil, they entail actively restoring habitats that have been destroyed. Restoration might mean rebuilding a marshland, reintroducing lost species, controlling erosion, or otherwise supporting the ecosystem services and functions that help the ecosystem heal itself. In the aftermath of a spill, a Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) is completed by NOAA to determine the impacts of the spill and then settle how the cleanup will be paid for. Usually this process is done between the party that caused the spill and government agencies at the state and federal level, as well as tribal agencies. 

Takeaway

Oil spills are major environmental disasters that will likely continue as long as our dependence on oil does. A global transition to clean energy would be a necessary large-scale change in order to eliminate oil spills as a threat, although reducing our personal use of fossil fuels is a useful beginning, including driving less, powering our homes with clean energy, and using less plastic.

While offshore drilling is still a reality, responsible choices by operators can prevent deadly oil spills from occurring, such as performing routine inspections of operations, investing in training of workers, and adhering to requirements made by legislative bodies. 

Legislative action regarding boat safety and offshore drilling is a proven useful avenue in preventing spills. The 1990 Oil Pollution Act stipulated that all tankers must be double-hulled by 2015. In 2021, the Polar Endeavour collided with a tugboat, suffering a four-foot indentation that penetrated the outer hull of the ship but not the inner, so no oil was spilled. This event shows that safety legislation can be effective at preventing spills, and electing representatives who champion environmental protection is an important tool at our disposal.

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